MCAT: High-Level Overview Study Guide

Physics

Units & Conversions

• SI Units

  • Length: meters ($m$$m$)

  • Mass: kilograms ($kg$$kg$)

  • Time: seconds ($s$$s$)

  • Electric Current: amperes ($A$$A$)

  • Temperature: kelvin ($K$$K$)

  • Amount of Substance: mole ($mol$$mol$)

  • Luminous Intensity: candela ($cd$$cd$)

Kinematics & Dynamics

• Kinematics Equations (constant acceleration)

  1. $v=v_0+at$$v = v_0 + at$

  2. $x=x_0+v_{0}t+\frac{1}{2}a{t}^2$$x = x_0 + v_0 t + \frac{1}{2}at^2$

  3. $v^2=v_0^2+2a\mathrm{\Delta }x$$v^2 = v_0^2 + 2a \Delta x$

• Newton’s Laws

  1. First Law (Inertia): An object in motion remains in motion unless acted upon by a net external force.

  2. Second Law: $\sum F=ma$$\sum F = ma$

  3. Third Law: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

• Work & Energy

  • Work: $W=F\cdot d\cos \left(\theta \right)$$W = F \cdot d \cos(\theta)$ or $W=\mathrm{\Delta }KE$$W = \Delta KE$

  • Kinetic Energy: $KE=\frac{1}{2}m{v}^2$$KE = \frac{1}{2}mv^2$

  • Potential Energy:

    • Gravitational: $P{E}_{\text{grav}}=mgh$$PE_{\text{grav}} = mgh$

    • Spring: $P{E}_{\text{spring}}=\frac{1}{2}k{x}^2$$PE_{\text{spring}} = \frac{1}{2}kx^2$

  • Power: $P=\frac{W}{t}=F\cdot v$$P = \frac{W}{t} = F \cdot v$

  • Conservation of Energy: Total energy remains constant in an isolated system.

Fluids & Pressure

• Pressure: $P=\frac{F}{A}$$P = \frac{F}{A}$

• Hydrostatic Pressure: $P_{\text{fluid}}=\rho gh$$P_{\text{fluid}} = \rho gh$

• Buoyant Force: $F_b={\rho }_{\text{fluid}}{V}_{\text{displaced}}g$$F_b = \rho_{\text{fluid}} \, V_{\text{displaced}} \, g$

• Continuity Equation (ideal fluids): $A_1{v}_1=A_2{v}_2$$A_1 v_1 = A_2 v_2$

• Bernoulli’s Equation (ideal fluid):

  $$P+\frac{1}{2}\rho v^2+\rho gh=\text{constant}$$

  • Venturi Effect: High velocity → low pressure.

• Pascal’s Principle: Pressure applied to an incompressible fluid is transmitted equally in all directions.

• Archimedes’ Principle: The buoyant force on an object is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.

Thermodynamics

• First Law of Thermodynamics: $\mathrm{\Delta }U=Q+W$$\Delta U = Q + W$

  • Sign Convention: Work done on the system is positive.

• Heat Transfer: $q=mc\mathrm{\Delta }T$$q = mc\Delta T$

  • Specific Heat Capacity: Amount of heat per unit mass per degree change in temperature.

• Thermal Expansion:

  • Linear: $\mathrm{\Delta }L=\alpha L\mathrm{\Delta }T$$\Delta L = \alpha L \Delta T$

  • Volumetric: $\mathrm{\Delta }V=\beta V\mathrm{\Delta }T$$\Delta V = \beta V \Delta T$

• Gas Laws

  • Ideal Gas Law: $PV=nRT$$PV = nRT$

  • Boyle’s Law: $P_1{V}_1=P_2{V}_2$$P_1V_1 = P_2V_2$ (constant $T$$T$)

  • Charles’s Law: $\frac{V_1}{T_1}=\frac{V_2}{T_2}$$\frac{V_1}{T_1} = \frac{V_2}{T_2}$ (constant $P$$P$)

  • Avogadro’s Law: $\frac{V_1}{n_1}=\frac{V_2}{n_2}$$\frac{V_1}{n_1} = \frac{V_2}{n_2}$ (constant $T$$T$ and $P$$P$)

  • Partial Pressures: $P_{\text{gas}}=X_{\text{gas}}\cdot P_{\text{total}}$$P_{\text{gas}} = X_{\text{gas}} \cdot P_{\text{total}}$

• Second Law of Thermodynamics: Entropy of an isolated system always increases.

• Gibbs Free Energy: $\mathrm{\Delta }G=\mathrm{\Delta }H-T\mathrm{\Delta }S$$\Delta G = \Delta H - T\Delta S$

  • Spontaneous Processes: $\mathrm{\Delta }G<0$$\Delta G < 0$

  • Non-Spontaneous Processes: $\mathrm{\Delta }G>0$$\Delta G > 0$

  • Equilibrium: $\mathrm{\Delta }G=0$$\Delta G = 0$

Waves, Sound, and Light

• Wave Equation: $v=\lambda f$$v = \lambda f$

  • ( v ) = velocity

  • ( $\lambda$$\lambda$ ) = wavelength

  • ( f ) = frequency

• Intensity: $I=\frac{P}{A}$$I = \frac{P}{A}$ [W/m²]

• Doppler Effect:

  • Moving Source: $f^{\prime }=f\left(\frac{v+v_{\text{observer}}}{v+v_{\text{source}}}\right)$$f' = f \left( \frac{v + v_{\text{observer}}}{v + v_{\text{source}}} \right)$

  • Moving Observer: $f^{\prime }=f\left(\frac{v+v_{\text{observer}}}{v}\right)$$f' = f \left( \frac{v + v_{\text{observer}}}{v} \right)$

• Refraction (Snell’s Law): $n_1\sin \left({\theta }_1\right)=n_2\sin \left({\theta }_2\right)$$n_1 \sin(\theta_1) = n_2 \sin(\theta_2)$

  • Refractive Index: $n=\frac{c}{v}$$n = \frac{c}{v}$

• Lenses & Mirrors

  • Thin Lens Equation: $\frac{1}{f}=\frac{1}{o}+\frac{1}{i}$$\frac{1}{f} = \frac{1}{o} + \frac{1}{i}$

    • ( f ) = focal length

    • ( o ) = object distance

    • ( i ) = image distance

  • Mirror Equation: Similar to thin lens.

  • Image Formation:

    • Converging (Convex Lens / Concave Mirror): Can form real or virtual images.

    • Diverging (Concave Lens / Convex Mirror): Always forms virtual, upright images.

• Total Internal Reflection

  • Occurs when light moves from a medium with higher refractive index to lower and the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle.

  • Critical Angle: ${\theta }_c=\arcsin \left(\frac{n_2}{n_1}\right)$$\theta_c = \arcsin\left(\frac{n_2}{n_1}\right)$ where ( n_1 > n_2 ).

Electricity & Magnetism

• Electric Field: $E=\frac{F}{q}=\frac{kQ}{r^2}$$E = \frac{F}{q} = \frac{kQ}{r^2}$

• Electric Potential: $V=\frac{kQ}{r}$$V = \frac{kQ}{r}$

• Potential Energy: $U=\frac{kQq}{r}$$U = \frac{kQq}{r}$

• Ohm’s Law: $V=IR$$V = IR$

• Kirchhoff’s Laws:

  1. Junction Rule: Current into junction = current out.

  2. Loop Rule: Sum of voltages in a closed loop = 0.

• Resistors:

  • Series: $R_{\text{eq}}=R_1+R_2+\dots$$R_{\text{eq}} = R_1 + R_2 + \dots$

  • Parallel: $\frac{1}{R_{\text{eq}}}=\frac{1}{R_1}+\frac{1}{R_2}+\dots$$\frac{1}{R_{\text{eq}}} = \frac{1}{R_1} + \frac{1}{R_2} + \dots$

• Capacitors: $C=\frac{Q}{V}$$C = \frac{Q}{V}$

  • Series: $\frac{1}{C_{\text{eq}}}=\frac{1}{C_1}+\dots$$\frac{1}{C_{\text{eq}}} = \frac{1}{C_1} + \dots$

  • Parallel: $C_{\text{eq}}=C_1+C_2+\dots$$C_{\text{eq}} = C_1 + C_2 + \dots$

• Magnetic Force: $F=qvB\sin \left(\theta \right)$$F = q \, v \, B \, \sin(\theta)$

• Faraday’s Law of Induction: $\mathcal{E}=-\frac{d{\mathrm{\Phi }}_B}{dt}$$\mathcal{E} = -\frac{d\Phi_B}{dt}$

• Ampère’s Law: $\oint \overrightarrow{B}\cdot d\overrightarrow{l}={\mu }_0{I}_{\text{enc}}$$\oint \vec{B} \cdot d\vec{l} = \mu_0 I_{\text{enc}}$

General Chemistry

Atomic Structure & Periodic Trends

• Quantum Numbers

  1. Principal Quantum Number ($n$$n$): Indicates the energy level or shell.

  2. Azimuthal Quantum Number ($l$$l$): Indicates the subshell (0 = s, 1 = p, 2 = d, 3 = f).

  3. Magnetic Quantum Number ($m_l$$m_l$): Indicates the orientation of the orbital (-$l$$l$ to +$l$$l$).

  4. Spin Quantum Number ($m_s$$m_s$): Indicates the spin direction ($+\frac{1}{2}$$+\frac{1}{2}$ or $-\frac{1}{2}$$-\frac{1}{2}$).

• Effective Nuclear Charge ($Z_{\text{eff}}$$Z_{\text{eff}}$): Net positive charge experienced by valence electrons. Increases across a period and decreases down a group.

• Periodic Trends

  • Ionization Energy: Energy required to remove an electron. Increases across a period, decreases down a group.

  • Electronegativity: Tendency to attract electrons in a bond. Increases across a period, decreases down a group.

  • Atomic Radius: Distance from nucleus to outermost electrons. Decreases across a period, increases down a group.

  • Electron Affinity: Energy change when an electron is added. Generally becomes more negative across a period.

Bonding & Intermolecular Forces

• Ionic Bonding: Transfer of electrons from a metal to a nonmetal, forming cations and anions.

• Covalent Bonding: Sharing of electrons between nonmetals.

  • Nonpolar Covalent: Equal sharing of electrons ($\mathrm{\Delta }EN<0.5$$\Delta EN < 0.5$).

  • Polar Covalent: Unequal sharing of electrons ($0.5<\mathrm{\Delta }EN<1.7$$0.5 < \Delta EN < 1.7$).

• Intermolecular Forces (strength from weakest to strongest):

  1. London Dispersion Forces

  2. Dipole-Dipole Interactions

  3. Hydrogen Bonding (requires F, O, or N)

  4. Ion-Dipole Forces

  5. Ion-Ion Forces

• Bond Types

  • Sigma ($\sigma$$\sigma$) Bonds: Formed by head-on overlap, stronger and allow free rotation.

  • Pi ($\pi$$\pi$) Bonds: Formed by side-by-side overlap, weaker and restrict rotation.

Stoichiometry & Chemical Reactions

• Balancing Equations: Ensure conservation of mass by balancing atoms for each element.

• Limiting Reagent: The reactant that is completely consumed first, limiting the amount of product formed.

• Molar Mass Calculations: Sum of atomic masses of all atoms in a molecule.

• Empirical vs. Molecular Formulas:

  • Empirical Formula: Simplest whole-number ratio of atoms.

  • Molecular Formula: Actual number of atoms in a molecule.

• Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions:

  • Oxidation: Loss of electrons.

  • Reduction: Gain of electrons.

  • OIL RIG: Oxidation Is Loss, Reduction Is Gain.

  • Oxidizing Agent: Gains electrons (gets reduced).

  • Reducing Agent: Loses electrons (gets oxidized).

Kinetics & Equilibrium

• Rate Laws: $\text{Rate}=k[A{]}^x[B{]}^y$$\text{Rate} = k [A]^x [B]^y$

  • Overall Order: Sum of exponents ($x+y$$x + y$).

• Reaction Orders

  • Zero Order: Rate independent of concentration.

  • First Order: Rate proportional to concentration.

  • Second Order: Rate proportional to concentration squared or to two reactants.

• Arrhenius Equation: $k=A{e}^{-\frac{E_a}{RT}}$$k = A e^{-\frac{E_a}{RT}}$

  • $k$$k$: Rate constant

  • $A$$A$: Frequency factor

  • $E_a$$E_a$: Activation energy

  • $R$$R$: Gas constant

  • $T$$T$: Temperature (K)

• Le Châtelier’s Principle: If a system at equilibrium is disturbed, it shifts to counteract the disturbance.

• Equilibrium Constant ($K_{eq}$$K_{eq}$):

  $$K_{eq}=\frac{[\text{products}{]}^{\text{coefficients}}}{[\text{reactants}{]}^{\text{coefficients}}}$$

  • $Q>K_{eq}$$Q > K_{eq}$: Shift left to form reactants.

  • $Q<K_{eq}$$Q < K_{eq}$: Shift right to form products.

Acids & Bases

• Definitions

  • Arrhenius:

    • Acid: Produces $H^{+}$$H^+$ in water.

    • Base: Produces $O{H}^{-}$$OH^-$ in water.

  • Brønsted-Lowry:

    • Acid: $H^{+}$$H^+$ donor.

    • Base: $H^{+}$$H^+$ acceptor.

  • Lewis:

    • Acid: Electron pair acceptor.

    • Base: Electron pair donor.

• pH & pKa

  • $pH=-\log ([H^{+}])$$pH = -\log( [H^+] )$

  • $p{K}_a=-\log \left(K_a\right)$$pK_a = -\log(K_a)$

  • Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation:

    $$pH=p{K}_a+\log \frac{[{\text{A}}^{-}]}{[\text{HA}]}$$

• Titration Curves

  • Equivalence Point: Moles acid = moles base.

  • Half-Equivalence Point: $pH=p{K}_a$$pH = pK_a$

  • Buffer Region: Around the half-equivalence point, where buffer action is strongest.

Thermochemistry & Gases

• Enthalpy ($\mathrm{\Delta }H$$\Delta H$): $\mathrm{\Delta }H=\mathrm{\Delta }{H}_{\text{products}}-\mathrm{\Delta }{H}_{\text{reactants}}$$\Delta H = \Delta H_{\text{products}} - \Delta H_{\text{reactants}}$

  • Exothermic: $\mathrm{\Delta }H<0$$\Delta H < 0$ (releases heat)

  • Endothermic: $\mathrm{\Delta }H>0$$\Delta H > 0$ (absorbs heat)

• Entropy ($\mathrm{\Delta }S$$\Delta S$): Measure of disorder.

  • Increase in Entropy: $\mathrm{\Delta }S>0$$\Delta S > 0$

  • Decrease in Entropy: $\mathrm{\Delta }S<0$$\Delta S < 0$

• Gibbs Free Energy ($\mathrm{\Delta }G$$\Delta G$): $\mathrm{\Delta }G=\mathrm{\Delta }H-T\mathrm{\Delta }S$$\Delta G = \Delta H - T\Delta S$

  • Spontaneous Process: $\mathrm{\Delta }G<0$$\Delta G < 0$

  • Non-Spontaneous Process: $\mathrm{\Delta }G>0$$\Delta G > 0$

  • At Equilibrium: $\mathrm{\Delta }G=0$$\Delta G = 0$

• Gas Laws Review:

  • Ideal Gas Law: $PV=nRT$$PV = nRT$

  • Real Gas Behavior: Deviations at high pressure and low temperature due to intermolecular forces and volume occupied by gas molecules.

Organic Chemistry

Structure & Bonding

• Functional Group Priority (highest → lowest for naming)

  1. Carboxylic Acids, Anhydrides, Esters, Amides

  2. Aldehydes, Ketones

  3. Alcohols

  4. Amines, Ethers, Alkanes

• Hybridization

  • $s{p}^3$$sp^3$: Tetrahedral geometry.

  • $s{p}^2$$sp^2$: Trigonal planar geometry.

  • $sp$$sp$: Linear geometry.

• Resonance Structures: Delocalization of electrons, contributing to stability.

Stereochemistry

• Chirality:

  • A carbon atom bonded to four different substituents.

  • R/S Configuration:

    • Assign priorities based on atomic number.

    • Orient the molecule so the lowest priority group is pointing away.

    • Clockwise = R, Counterclockwise = S.

• Geometric Isomers (E/Z):

  • E (Entgegen): Higher priority groups on opposite sides.

  • Z (Zusammen): Higher priority groups on the same side.

• Enantiomers vs. Diastereomers:

  • Enantiomers: Non-superimposable mirror images.

  • Diastereomers: Stereoisomers that are not mirror images.

  • Meso Compounds: Contain multiple chiral centers but are achiral due to internal symmetry.

• Racemic Mixtures: 50/50 mixture of enantiomers, optically inactive.

Reactions & Mechanisms

• Substitution Reactions

  • $S_{N}2$$S_N2$:

    • Bimolecular nucleophilic substitution.

    • One-step mechanism with backside attack leading to inversion of configuration.

    • Prefers primary alkyl halides.

  • $S_{N}1$$S_N1$:

    • Unimolecular nucleophilic substitution.

    • Two-step mechanism involving carbocation intermediate.

    • Leads to racemic mixtures.

    • Prefers tertiary alkyl halides.

• Elimination Reactions

  • $E2$$E2$:

    • Bimolecular elimination.

    • One-step mechanism requiring a strong base and anti-periplanar geometry.

  • $E1$$E1$:

    • Unimolecular elimination.

    • Two-step mechanism involving carbocation intermediate.

    • Can compete with $S_{N}1$$S_N1$.

• Addition Reactions

  • Hydrogenation: Addition of H₂ across double bonds.

  • Hydrohalogenation: Addition of HX (e.g., HCl) to alkenes.

  • Hydration: Addition of water to alkenes.

• Oxidation-Reduction

  • Oxidizing Agents: Increase oxidation state (e.g., KMnO₄, Cr₂O₇²⁻).

  • Reducing Agents: Decrease oxidation state (e.g., LiAlH₄, NaBH₄).

Carbonyl Chemistry

• Aldehydes and Ketones:

  • Nucleophilic Addition: Nucleophile attacks the carbonyl carbon.

  • Imine Formation: Reaction with primary amines.

  • Enamine Formation: Reaction with secondary amines.

• Carboxylic Acids & Derivatives:

  • Reactivity Order: Acid chlorides > Anhydrides > Esters ≈ Carboxylic acids > Amides.

  • Fischer Esterification: $\text{Carboxylic Acid}+\text{Alcohol}\to \text{Ester}+H_{2}O$$\text{Carboxylic Acid} + \text{Alcohol} \rightarrow \text{Ester} + H_2O$

  • Formation of Anhydrides: $2\text{Carboxylic Acid}\to \text{Anhydride}+H_{2}O$$2 \text{Carboxylic Acid} \rightarrow \text{Anhydride} + H_2O$

• Enolates:

  • Aldol Reaction: $\text{Enolate}+\text{Aldehyde/Ketone}\to \beta \text{-hydroxy carbonyl}$$\text{Enolate} + \text{Aldehyde/Ketone} \rightarrow \beta\text{-hydroxy carbonyl}$

  • Dehydration to α,β-Unsaturated Carbonyl:
    $\beta \text{-hydroxy carbonyl}\to \alpha ,\beta \text{-unsaturated carbonyl}+H_{2}O$$\beta\text{-hydroxy carbonyl} \rightarrow \alpha,\beta\text{-unsaturated carbonyl} + H_2O$

Synthesis

• Strecker Synthesis:
  $\text{Aldehyde}+N{H}_{4}Cl+KCN\to \alpha \text{-amino nitrile}\to \text{Amino Acid}$$\text{Aldehyde} + NH_4Cl + KCN \rightarrow \alpha\text{-amino nitrile} \rightarrow \text{Amino Acid}$

• Gabriel Synthesis:
  $\text{Phthalimide}+\text{Alkyl Halide}+\text{Base}\to \text{Phthalimide Alkylation}\to \text{Hydrolysis to Amino Acid}$$\text{Phthalimide} + \text{Alkyl Halide} + \text{Base} \rightarrow \text{Phthalimide Alkylation} \rightarrow \text{Hydrolysis to Amino Acid}$

Aromatic Chemistry

• Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution (EAS):

  • Common Reactions: Nitration, sulfonation, halogenation, Friedel-Crafts alkylation/acylation.

  • Mechanism:

    1. Formation of electrophile.

    2. Electrophile attacks aromatic ring, forming sigma complex.

    3. Deprotonation restores aromaticity.

• Activating vs. Deactivating Groups:

  • Activating Groups: Electron-donating, increase reactivity (e.g., -OH, -NH₂).

  • Deactivating Groups: Electron-withdrawing, decrease reactivity (e.g., -NO₂, -COOH).

• Directing Effects:

  • Ortho/Para Directors: Typically activating groups.

  • Meta Directors: Typically deactivating groups.

Biochemistry

Amino Acids & Proteins

• Standard Amino Acids:

  • Configuration: All L, mostly S configuration (except Cysteine = R, Glycine = achiral).

  • Average Molecular Weight: ~110 daltons.

  • Silent Mutations: Often occur at the third nucleotide in a codon, usually don't change the amino acid.

• Peptide Bonds:

  • Formed by dehydration synthesis between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another.

  • Planar, rigid linkage with partial double bond character, preventing rotation.

• Protein Structure Levels:

  1. Primary: Sequence of amino acids.

  2. Secondary: Local folding into α-helices and β-sheets stabilized by hydrogen bonds.

  3. Tertiary: Overall 3D structure stabilized by hydrophobic interactions, hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, and disulfide bridges.

  4. Quaternary: Assembly of multiple polypeptide chains into a functional protein.

Enzymes & Kinetics

• Michaelis-Menten Kinetics:
  $V=\frac{V_{max}[S]}{K_m+[S]}$$V = \frac{V_{\max} [S]}{K_m + [S]}$

  • $V_{max}$$V_{\max}$: Maximum reaction rate.

  • $K_m$$K_m$: Substrate concentration at half $V_{max}$$V_{\max}$.

• Enzyme Efficiency:

  • $k_{\text{cat}}=\frac{V_{max}}{[E{]}_{\text{total}}}$$k_{\text{cat}} = \frac{V_{\max}}{[E]_{\text{total}}}$

  • $k_{\text{cat}}$$k_{\text{cat}}$: Turnover number, number of substrate molecules converted per enzyme per second.

• Inhibition Types:

  • Competitive: Binds to active site, increases $K_m$$K_m$, no change in $V_{max}$$V_{\max}$.

  • Noncompetitive: Binds to allosteric site, decreases $V_{max}$$V_{\max}$, no change in $K_m$$K_m$.

  • Uncompetitive: Binds only to enzyme-substrate complex, decreases both $K_m$$K_m$ and $V_{max}$$V_{\max}$.

• Allosteric Regulation: Binding of effectors to sites other than the active site, causing conformational changes and altering enzyme activity.

• Coenzymes & Cofactors:

  • Coenzymes: Organic molecules (e.g., NAD⁺, FAD) that assist enzyme function.

  • Cofactors: Inorganic ions (e.g., Mg²⁺, Zn²⁺) that assist enzyme function.

Metabolism

• Glycolysis:

  • Location: Cytoplasm.

  • Pathway: 1 glucose → 2 pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2 NADH.

  • Key Regulation: Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1).

• Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex:

  • Function: Converts pyruvate to acetyl-CoA, linking glycolysis to the TCA cycle.

  • Requires: Thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP), lipoic acid, NAD⁺, CoA.

• TCA Cycle (Krebs Cycle):

  • Location: Mitochondrial matrix.

  • Function: Acetyl-CoA → 3 NADH + FADH₂ + GTP per cycle.

  • Key Regulation: Isocitrate dehydrogenase (rate-limiting step).

• Oxidative Phosphorylation:

  • Components: Electron Transport Chain (ETC) + ATP synthase.

  • Function: Produces ATP via chemiosmosis using the proton gradient.

• Pentose Phosphate Pathway:

  • Function: Generates NADPH and ribose-5-phosphate for nucleotide synthesis.

• β-Oxidation:

  • Location: Mitochondrial matrix.

  • Function: Fatty acids → Acetyl-CoA units, NADH, FADH₂.

  • Transport: Carnitine shuttle for long-chain fatty acids.

• Urea Cycle:

  • Function: Detoxifies ammonia ($N{H}_3$$NH_3$) by converting it to urea.

  • Location: Liver.

Lipids

• Fatty Acid Synthesis:

  • Location: Cytosol.

  • Requirements: Acetyl-CoA, NADPH, malonyl-CoA.

  • Enzymes: Fatty acid synthase complex.

• Fatty Acid Oxidation (β-Oxidation):

  • Location: Mitochondrial matrix.

  • Steps: Activation, transport via carnitine shuttle, sequential removal of 2-carbon units as acetyl-CoA.

• Phospholipids:

  • Structure: Glycerol backbone, two fatty acid tails, phosphate group.

  • Function: Major component of cell membranes.

• Cholesterol:

  • Function: Precursor for steroid hormones, bile acids, vitamin D.

• Triglycerides:

  • Structure: Glycerol + three fatty acids.

  • Function: Major energy storage molecules.

Nucleic Acids

• DNA Structure:

  • Components: Sugar-phosphate backbone, nitrogenous bases (A, T, G, C).

  • Base Pairing: A-T (2 H-bonds), G-C (3 H-bonds).

• RNA Structure:

  • Components: Sugar-phosphate backbone, nitrogenous bases (A, U, G, C).

  • Base Pairing: A-U, G-C.

• DNA Replication:

  • Directionality: 5' → 3' synthesis.

  • Enzymes: DNA polymerase (reads 3' → 5'), helicase, ligase, primase.

• Transcription:

  • Process: DNA → mRNA.

  • Enzymes: RNA polymerase.

  • Directionality: 5' → 3' synthesis.

• Translation:

  • Process: mRNA → Protein.

  • Components: Ribosomes (40S + 60S = 80S in eukaryotes), tRNA, amino acids.

  • Codons: Triplet sequences on mRNA (e.g., AUG = Methionine/start).

  • Stop Codons: UAA, UAG, UGA.

Metabolic Pathways & Regulation

• Glycolysis Regulation:

  • Key Enzymes: Hexokinase, Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1), Pyruvate kinase.

  • Allosteric Activators: Fructose-2,6-bisphosphate, AMP.

  • Allosteric Inhibitors: ATP, citrate.

• Gluconeogenesis:

  • Function: Synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources.

  • Key Enzymes: Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase, PEP carboxykinase.

  • Regulation: Opposite of glycolysis (inhibited by ATP, acetyl-CoA).

• Pentose Phosphate Pathway:

  • Function: Produces NADPH and ribose-5-phosphate.

  • Key Enzymes: Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase.

• Fatty Acid Metabolism:

  • Synthesis vs. Oxidation: Controlled by insulin and glucagon levels.

  • Key Enzymes: Acetyl-CoA carboxylase (synthesis), Carnitine acyltransferase (oxidation).

Vitamins & Cofactors

• Vitamins:

  • Water-Soluble: B vitamins, Vitamin C.

  • Fat-Soluble: Vitamins A, D, E, K.

• Coenzymes:

  • NAD⁺/NADH: Redox reactions.

  • FAD/FADH₂: Redox reactions.

  • Coenzyme A: Acyl group transfer.

  • Thiamine Pyrophosphate (TPP): Decarboxylation reactions.

• Minerals:

  • Cofactors: Mg²⁺, Zn²⁺, Mn²⁺, Fe²⁺/Fe³⁺.

  • Functions: Enzyme activation, structural roles.

Genetic Regulation & Epigenetics

• Chromatin Structure:

  • Euchromatin: Loosely packed, actively transcribed.

  • Heterochromatin: Tightly packed, transcriptionally inactive.

• Histone Modifications:

  • Acetylation: Increases gene expression by relaxing chromatin structure.

  • Methylation: Generally decreases gene expression by compacting chromatin.

• Gene Expression Regulation:

  • Operons: Lac operon (inducible), Trp operon (repressible).

  • Transcription Factors: Activate or repress transcription.

  • Epigenetic Changes: DNA methylation, histone modification.

• Post-Transcriptional Modifications:

  • 5' Cap: Protects mRNA and assists in ribosome binding.

  • Poly-A Tail: Protects mRNA from degradation and aids in export from nucleus.

  • Splicing: Removal of introns, joining of exons.

Enzyme Inhibition

• Types of Inhibition:

  • Competitive: Binds to active site, increases $K_m$$K_m$, no change in $V_{max}$$V_{\max}$.

  • Noncompetitive: Binds to allosteric site, decreases $V_{max}$$V_{\max}$, no change in $K_m$$K_m$.

  • Uncompetitive: Binds only to enzyme-substrate complex, decreases both $K_m$$K_m$ and $V_{max}$$V_{\max}$.

• Mixed Inhibition: Binds to both E and ES but with different affinities, affects both $K_m$$K_m$ and $V_{max}$$V_{\max}$.

• Allosteric Regulation: Effector molecules bind to sites other than the active site, altering enzyme activity.

Metabolic Disorders

• Diabetes Mellitus:

  • Type 1: Autoimmune destruction of beta cells, lack of insulin production.

  • Type 2: Insulin resistance, impaired insulin signaling (e.g., GLUT4 receptor issues).

• Genetic Disorders:

  • Phenylketonuria (PKU): Deficiency in phenylalanine hydroxylase.

  • Maple Syrup Urine Disease: Deficiency in branched-chain ketoacid dehydrogenase.

Molecular Biology Techniques

• PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction): Amplification of specific DNA sequences.

• Gel Electrophoresis: Separation of DNA/RNA/proteins based on size and charge.

• Western Blotting: Detection of specific proteins using antibodies.

• Southern Blotting: Detection of specific DNA sequences.

• Northern Blotting: Detection of specific RNA sequences.

• Cloning: Inserting DNA fragments into vectors for replication.

• Sequencing: Determining the exact sequence of nucleotides in DNA/RNA.

Biology

Cell & Molecular Biology

• Cell Theory: All living organisms are composed of cells, the cell is the basic unit of life, and all cells arise from preexisting cells.

• Eukaryotic Organelles:

  • Nucleus: Contains genetic material.

  • Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):

    • Rough ER: Synthesizes proteins destined for membranes or secretion.

    • Smooth ER: Synthesizes lipids, detoxifies drugs.

  • Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for secretion or delivery to other organelles.

  • Mitochondria: Powerhouse of the cell, site of ATP production.

  • Lysosomes: Contain hydrolytic enzymes for digestion.

  • Peroxisomes: Break down fatty acids and detoxify harmful substances.

  • Ribosomes: Synthesize proteins.

• Cytoskeleton:

  • Microfilaments (Actin): Support cell shape, muscle contraction.

  • Microtubules (Tubulin): Intracellular transport, cell division (spindle fibers).

  • Intermediate Filaments: Provide mechanical support.

• Cell Cycle: G1 → S → G2 → M

  • Mitosis: Division of the nucleus (PMAT: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase).

  • Cytokinesis: Division of the cytoplasm.

• Meiosis:

  • Purpose: Produce haploid gametes (sperm and eggs).

  • Phases: Meiosis I (reductional) and Meiosis II (equational).

  • Crossing Over: Exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during Prophase I.

Genetics

• Mendel’s Laws:

  1. Law of Segregation: Alleles segregate during gamete formation.

  2. Law of Independent Assortment: Genes for different traits assort independently during gamete formation.

• Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium:

  • Conditions: No mutation, random mating, no gene flow, infinite population size, no selection.

  • Equations:

    • Allele Frequencies: $p+q=1$$p + q = 1$

    • Genotype Frequencies: $p^2+2pq+q^2=1$$p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1$

  • Applications: Calculate allele frequencies, genotype frequencies, determine if a population is in equilibrium.

• Linked Genes: Genes located close together on the same chromosome, less likely to undergo recombination.

• Gene Mapping: Determining the order and relative distance between genes based on recombination frequencies.

• Genetic Drift: Random fluctuations in allele frequencies, more pronounced in small populations.

  • Bottle-Neck Effect: Sudden reduction in population size leading to loss of genetic diversity.

  • Founder Effect: New population started by a small number of individuals, limiting genetic variation.

• Selection Types:

  • Directional: Favors one extreme phenotype.

  • Stabilizing: Favors intermediate phenotypes.

  • Disruptive: Favors both extreme phenotypes.

• Sex-Linked Inheritance: Traits associated with genes on sex chromosomes (X or Y).

  • X-Linked Dominant: Both males and females can be affected, but males are hemizygous.

  • X-Linked Recessive: More males are affected, females can be carriers.

Organ Systems Highlights

• Nervous System

  • Components: Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).

  • Neurons: Conduct electrical impulses (action potentials).

    • Structure: Dendrites (receive signals), soma (cell body), axon (transmits signals).

    • Myelination: Oligodendrocytes (CNS), Schwann cells (PNS).

  • Action Potential Phases:

    1. Resting Potential: -70 mV.

    2. Depolarization: Na⁺ channels open, Na⁺ influx.

    3. Repolarization: K⁺ channels open, K⁺ efflux.

    4. Hyperpolarization: K⁺ channels remain open, potential drops below resting.

    5. Return to Resting Potential: Na⁺/K⁺ pump restores ion balance.

  • Synaptic Transmission:

    • Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers (e.g., acetylcholine, dopamine).

    • Receptors: Bind neurotransmitters, initiate postsynaptic responses.

  • Reflex Arcs: Simple pathways involving sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons for rapid responses.

• Cardiovascular System

  • Heart Structure:

    • Chambers: Right Atrium (RA), Right Ventricle (RV), Left Atrium (LA), Left Ventricle (LV).

    • Valves: Tricuspid (RA to RV), Mitral (LA to LV), Pulmonary (RV to Pulmonary Artery), Aortic (LV to Aorta).

  • Blood Flow: RA → RV → Pulmonary Circulation → LA → LV → Systemic Circulation → RA.

  • Electrical Conduction: SA node → AV node → Bundle of His → Purkinje fibers.

  • Blood Pressure Regulation: Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS), baroreceptors.

• Respiratory System

  • Components: Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, alveoli.

  • Gas Exchange: Occurs in alveoli via diffusion.

  • Bicarbonate Buffer System:
    $\mathrm{CO}{\phantom{A}}_2+\mathrm{H}{\phantom{A}}_2\mathrm{O}⟷\mathrm{H}{\phantom{A}}_2\mathrm{CO}{\phantom{A}}_3⟷\mathrm{HCO}{\phantom{A}}_3{\phantom{A}}^{-}+\mathrm{H}{\phantom{A}}^{+}$$\ce{CO2 + H2O <-> H2CO3 <-> HCO3^- + H+}$

  • Regulation: Controlled by the respiratory center in the medulla responding to $C{O}_2$$CO_2$ levels.

• Renal System

  • Nephron Structure: Glomerulus, Bowman's capsule, proximal tubule, Loop of Henle, distal tubule, collecting duct.

  • Functions: Filtration, reabsorption, secretion, excretion.

  • Loop of Henle: Establishes osmotic gradient for water reabsorption.

  • Hormonal Control:

    • ADH: Promotes water reabsorption in the collecting ducts.

    • Aldosterone: Promotes sodium reabsorption in the distal tubule and collecting duct.

• Digestive System

  • Process:

    • Mouth: Mechanical digestion, enzymatic breakdown of carbohydrates.

    • Stomach: Protein digestion with pepsin, acidic environment.

    • Small Intestine: Absorption of nutrients.

    • Large Intestine: Absorption of water, formation of feces.

  • Accessory Organs: Liver (produces bile), Pancreas (secretes digestive enzymes, insulin, glucagon).

  • Enzymes:

    • Amylase: Breaks down starches.

    • Proteases: Break down proteins.

    • Lipases: Break down fats.

Endocrine System

• Hormones:

  • Peptide Hormones: Hydrophilic, bind to surface receptors (e.g., insulin, glucagon).

  • Steroid Hormones: Lipophilic, bind to intracellular receptors (e.g., cortisol, aldosterone).

  • Amino Acid-Derived Hormones: Can be hydrophilic or lipophilic (e.g., epinephrine, thyroid hormones).

• Pituitary Gland:

  • Anterior Pituitary (FLAT PEG):

    • FSH: Follicle-stimulating hormone.

    • LH: Luteinizing hormone.

    • ACTH: Adrenocorticotropic hormone.

    • TSH: Thyroid-stimulating hormone.

    • Prolactin: Promotes milk production.

    • Endorphins: Natural painkillers.

    • Growth Hormone (GH): Stimulates growth.

  • Posterior Pituitary:

    • ADH: Antidiuretic hormone, promotes water reabsorption in kidneys.

    • Oxytocin: Stimulates uterine contractions and milk ejection.

• Adrenal Glands:

  • Cortex: Produces corticosteroids (cortisol, aldosterone).

  • Medulla: Produces catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine).

• Pancreas:

  • Islet Cells:

    • Alpha Cells: Release glucagon.

    • Beta Cells: Release insulin.

    • Delta Cells: Release somatostatin (inhibits insulin and glucagon).

• Thyroid Gland:

  • Hormones: Thyroxine (T4), Triiodothyronine (T3).

  • Function: Regulate metabolism, growth, development.

• Reproductive Hormones:

  • Estrogen: Develops female secondary sexual characteristics.

  • Progesterone: Prepares endometrium for pregnancy.

  • Testosterone: Develops male secondary sexual characteristics.

Immune System

• Innate Immunity:

  • Components: Physical barriers (skin, mucous membranes), phagocytes (macrophages, neutrophils), natural killer (NK) cells, complement system.

  • Features: Non-specific, immediate response.

• Adaptive Immunity:

  • Components:

    • B Cells: Humoral immunity, produce antibodies.

    • T Cells: Cellular immunity, helper and cytotoxic.

  • Features: Specific, memory response.

• Antigen Presentation:

  • MHC I: Presents endogenous antigens, recognized by CD8⁺ T cells.

  • MHC II: Presents exogenous antigens, recognized by CD4⁺ T cells.

• Immunological Memory:

  • Primary Response: First exposure, slower and weaker.

  • Secondary Response: Subsequent exposures, faster and stronger due to memory cells.

• Vaccination: Introduction of antigens to stimulate adaptive immunity without causing disease.

Cell Communication & Signal Transduction

• Signal Transduction Pathways:

  • Receptors:

    • G-Protein Coupled Receptors (GPCRs): Bind ligands, activate G-proteins.

    • Receptor Tyrosine Kinases (RTKs): Bind ligands, phosphorylate tyrosines.

    • Ion Channel Receptors: Open/close channels in response to ligands.

    • Intracellular Receptors: Bind lipophilic hormones, act as transcription factors.

  • Second Messengers:

    • cAMP: Activates protein kinase A (PKA).

    • IP₃/DAG: Release Ca²⁺ from stores, activate protein kinase C (PKC).

    • Ca²⁺: Acts as a signaling ion.

  • Pathway Steps:

    1. Ligand binding to receptor.

    2. Activation of receptor (e.g., phosphorylation, conformational change).

    3. Activation of intracellular proteins (e.g., G-proteins, kinases).

    4. Amplification through cascades.

    5. Cellular response (e.g., gene expression, metabolic changes).

Genetic Regulation & Epigenetics

• Chromatin Structure:

  • Euchromatin: Loosely packed, actively transcribed.

  • Heterochromatin: Tightly packed, transcriptionally inactive.

• Histone Modifications:

  • Acetylation: Adds acetyl groups, loosens chromatin, increases gene expression.

  • Methylation: Adds methyl groups, can either activate or repress gene expression depending on context.

• DNA Methylation: Addition of methyl groups to cytosine bases, typically represses gene expression.

• Non-coding RNAs:

  • miRNA (microRNA): Binds to mRNA, inhibits translation or promotes degradation.

  • siRNA (small interfering RNA): Similar to miRNA, involved in RNA interference.

  • snRNA (small nuclear RNA): Involved in mRNA splicing.

• Transcription Factors: Proteins that bind to specific DNA sequences to regulate transcription.

• Epigenetic Inheritance: Heritable changes in gene expression without changes in DNA sequence.

Cell Division & Reproduction

• Mitosis:

  • Phases: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase.

  • Outcome: Two genetically identical daughter cells.

• Meiosis:

  • Phases: Meiosis I (reductional) and Meiosis II (equational).

  • Outcome: Four genetically diverse haploid gametes.

  • Key Events: Crossing over during Prophase I, independent assortment during Metaphase I.

• Fertilization: Fusion of haploid gametes to form a diploid zygote.

• Zygote Development Stages: Zygote → Blastocyst → Gastrula → Organogenesis.

  • Totipotent Cells: Zygote, can form all cell types including placental cells.

  • Pluripotent Cells: Blastocyst, can form all cell types of the body but not placental cells.

  • Multipotent Cells: Gastrula, can form multiple cell types within a particular lineage.

Cellular Transport Mechanisms

• Passive Transport: No energy required.

  • Simple Diffusion: Movement down concentration gradient.

  • Facilitated Diffusion: Movement through channels or carriers.

  • Osmosis: Diffusion of water.

• Active Transport: Requires energy (ATP).

  • Primary Active Transport: Direct use of ATP (e.g., Na⁺/K⁺ pump).

  • Secondary Active Transport: Uses electrochemical gradient (e.g., symport, antiport).

• Bulk Transport:

  • Endocytosis: Uptake of large molecules via vesicles (phagocytosis, pinocytosis).

  • Exocytosis: Secretion of large molecules via vesicles.

Genetics Techniques

• CRISPR-Cas9: Genome editing tool for precise modifications.

• Gel Electrophoresis: Separation of DNA/RNA/proteins based on size and charge.

• PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction): Amplification of specific DNA sequences.

• DNA Sequencing: Determining the order of nucleotides in DNA.

• Southern Blotting: Detecting specific DNA sequences.

• Northern Blotting: Detecting specific RNA sequences.

• Western Blotting: Detecting specific proteins using antibodies.

Behavioral Science

Psychology Theories

• Learning Theories:

  • Classical Conditioning (Pavlov): Associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response.

  • Operant Conditioning (Skinner): Reinforcement and punishment to increase or decrease behavior.

    • Positive Reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus.

    • Negative Reinforcement: Removing an undesirable stimulus.

    • Positive Punishment: Adding an undesirable stimulus.

    • Negative Punishment: Removing a desirable stimulus.

• Emotion Theories:

  • James-Lange: Emotion is the perception of physiological changes.

  • Cannon-Bard: Emotion and physiological responses occur simultaneously.

  • Schachter-Singer: Emotion is based on physiological arousal and cognitive labeling.

• Developmental Theories:

  • Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development: Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, Formal Operational.

  • Freud’s Psychosexual Stages: Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital.

  • Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages: Trust vs. Mistrust, Autonomy vs. Shame, Initiative vs. Guilt, Industry vs. Inferiority, Identity vs. Role Confusion, Intimacy vs. Isolation, Generativity vs. Stagnation, Integrity vs. Despair.

  • Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development: Preconventional, Conventional, Postconventional.

• Cognitive Theories:

  • Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory: Social interaction is fundamental to cognitive development.

  • Bandura’s Social Learning Theory: Learning occurs through observation and imitation.

• Humanistic Theories:

  • Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Physiological, Safety, Love/Belonging, Esteem, Self-Actualization.

  • Rogers’ Self-Concept Theory: Focus on self-actualization and congruence between self and experience.

• Biological Theories:

  • Behavioral Neuroscience: Study of how the brain and neurotransmitters influence behavior.

  • Genetic Influences: Heritability of traits and behaviors.

Cognitive Processes

• Memory Systems:

  • Sensory Memory: Brief retention of sensory information.

  • Short-Term Memory (STM): Limited capacity, temporary storage.

  • Long-Term Memory (LTM): Unlimited capacity, long-term storage.

    • Declarative (Explicit): Facts and events.

    • Procedural (Implicit): Skills and tasks.

• Attention:

  • Selective Attention: Focusing on specific stimuli while ignoring others.

  • Divided Attention: Processing multiple stimuli simultaneously.

• Perception:

  • Gestalt Principles:

    • Proximity: Objects close together are perceived as a group.

    • Similarity: Similar objects are grouped together.

    • Continuity: Continuous patterns are perceived as a whole.

    • Closure: Incomplete figures are perceived as complete.

    • Common Fate: Objects moving in the same direction are perceived as a group.

• Problem-Solving & Decision-Making:

  • Algorithms: Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution.

  • Heuristics: Mental shortcuts that speed up problem-solving but may lead to errors.

  • Biases: Systematic deviations from rational judgment (e.g., confirmation bias, availability heuristic).

Social Psychology

• Attribution Theory: How individuals explain causes of behavior and events.

  • Fundamental Attribution Error: Overemphasizing personality traits and underemphasizing situational factors.

  • Self-Serving Bias: Attributing successes to internal factors and failures to external factors.

• Group Dynamics:

  • Conformity: Adjusting behavior to align with group norms.

  • Compliance: Changing behavior in response to a request.

  • Obedience: Following orders from an authority figure.

• Prejudice & Discrimination:

  • Prejudice: Negative attitudes towards a group.

  • Discrimination: Unfair treatment based on group membership.

  • Stereotypes: Generalized beliefs about a group.

• Interpersonal Relationships:

  • Attraction: Factors that lead to liking and forming relationships.

  • Love: Different types (e.g., passionate, companionate).

  • Conflict Resolution: Strategies for resolving disagreements.

Developmental Psychology

• Stages of Development:

  • Infancy: Trust vs. Mistrust, Sensorimotor Stage.

  • Childhood: Autonomy vs. Shame, Initiative vs. Guilt, Concrete Operational Stage.

  • Adolescence: Identity vs. Role Confusion, Formal Operational Stage.

  • Adulthood: Intimacy vs. Isolation, Generativity vs. Stagnation, Integrity vs. Despair.

• Attachment Theory:

  • Secure Attachment: Comfortable with intimacy and independence.

  • Insecure Attachment: Anxious or avoidant behaviors.

• Moral Development:

  • Kohlberg’s Stages:

    1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation

    2. Self-Interest Orientation

    3. Interpersonal Accord and Conformity

    4. Authority and Social Order Maintaining Orientation

    5. Social Contract Orientation

    6. Universal Ethical Principles Orientation.

Motivation & Emotion

• Theories of Motivation:

  • Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Physiological, Safety, Love/Belonging, Esteem, Self-Actualization.

  • Drive Reduction Theory: Motivation arises from biological needs to reduce drives.

  • Incentive Theory: Behavior motivated by external rewards.

• Emotion Theories:

  • James-Lange: Emotion is the perception of physiological changes.

  • Cannon-Bard: Emotion and physiological responses occur simultaneously.

  • Schachter-Singer: Emotion is based on physiological arousal and cognitive labeling.

• Stress and Coping:

  • Stressors: External events that cause stress.

  • Coping Mechanisms: Strategies to manage stress (problem-focused, emotion-focused).

  • Yerkes-Dodson Law: Optimal performance at moderate arousal levels; performance decreases at low and high arousal.

  • HPA Axis: Hypothalamus → Pituitary → Adrenal glands (cortisol release).

Personality Theories

• Trait Theories:

  • Big Five (OCEAN): Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.

• Psychoanalytic Theories:

  • Freud’s Structure: Id, Ego, Superego.

  • Defense Mechanisms: Repression, denial, projection, etc.

• Humanistic Theories:

  • Carl Rogers: Self-concept, conditions of worth, unconditional positive regard.

  • Abraham Maslow: Self-actualization as the highest need.

• Behavioral Theories:

  • Skinner’s Operant Conditioning: Reinforcement and punishment shape behavior.

• Cognitive Theories:

  • Bandura’s Social Learning Theory: Learning through observation and imitation.

• Biological Theories:

  • Genetic Influences: Heritability of personality traits.

  • Neurotransmitter Systems: Role of serotonin, dopamine in personality and behavior.

Cognitive Psychology

• Memory Models:

  • Atkinson-Shiffrin Model: Sensory memory → Short-term memory → Long-term memory.

  • Working Memory (Baddeley): Central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer.

• Cognitive Biases:

  • Confirmation Bias: Seeking information that confirms existing beliefs.

  • Anchoring Bias: Relying too heavily on the first piece of information encountered.

  • Availability Heuristic: Estimating probability based on how easily examples come to mind.

• Problem-Solving Strategies:

  • Algorithms: Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution.

  • Heuristics: Mental shortcuts that speed up problem-solving but may lead to errors.

  • Insight: Sudden realization of a solution.

  • Functional Fixedness: Inability to see alternative uses for an object.

Perception

• Gestalt Principles:

  • Proximity: Objects close together are perceived as a group.

  • Similarity: Similar objects are grouped together.

  • Continuity: Continuous lines are perceived as a whole.

  • Closure: Incomplete shapes are perceived as complete.

  • Common Fate: Objects moving in the same direction are perceived as a group.

• Perceptual Set: Tendency to perceive things based on expectations and experiences.

• Depth Perception:

  • Binocular Cues: Stereopsis, convergence.

  • Monocular Cues: Relative size, interposition, linear perspective, texture gradient.

• Visual Processing:

  • Pathways:

    • Parvocellular: Color and fine detail (What pathway).

    • Magnocellular: Motion and depth (Where pathway).

  • Receptive Fields: Area of the retina that responds to stimuli.

• Auditory Processing:

  • Structure of the Ear: Outer, middle, inner ear.

  • Frequency and Pitch: High frequency = high pitch, low frequency = low pitch.

  • Lateralization: Localization of sound sources based on differences in time and intensity between ears.

• Other Senses:

  • Olfaction: Smell, linked to limbic system.

  • Gustation: Taste, five basic tastes (sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami).

  • Somatosensation: Touch, pressure, pain, temperature, proprioception.

Social Psychology

• Attribution Theory: How people explain behavior and events.

  • Internal Attribution: Behavior caused by personal factors (traits, abilities).

  • External Attribution: Behavior caused by situational factors.

  • Fundamental Attribution Error: Overemphasizing internal factors for others’ behavior.

• Social Influence:

  • Conformity: Changing behavior to match group norms.

  • Compliance: Changing behavior in response to a request.

  • Obedience: Following orders from an authority figure.

• Group Dynamics:

  • Groupthink: Desire for harmony leads to poor decision-making.

  • Social Facilitation: Enhanced performance on well-learned tasks in the presence of others.

  • Social Loafing: Reduced effort when working in a group.

• Interpersonal Relationships:

  • Attraction: Factors influencing liking and forming relationships.

  • Love: Different types (passionate, companionate).

  • Conflict Resolution: Strategies for resolving disagreements.

Motivation & Emotion

• Theories of Motivation:

  • Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Physiological, Safety, Love/Belonging, Esteem, Self-Actualization.

  • Drive Reduction Theory: Biological needs create drives that motivate behavior to reduce the drive.

  • Incentive Theory: Behavior motivated by external rewards and incentives.

  • Self-Determination Theory: Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation.

• Emotion Theories:

  • James-Lange: Emotion is the perception of physiological changes.

  • Cannon-Bard: Emotion and physiological responses occur simultaneously.

  • Schachter-Singer: Emotion is based on physiological arousal and cognitive labeling.

• Stress and Coping:

  • Stress Appraisal:

    • Primary Appraisal: Is this event a threat?

    • Secondary Appraisal: Do I have the resources to cope?

  • Coping Mechanisms: Problem-focused (addressing the problem) and emotion-focused (managing emotions).

  • Yerkes-Dodson Law: Optimal performance at moderate arousal levels; performance decreases at low and high arousal.

• Physiological Responses to Stress: Activation of the HPA axis (Hypothalamus → Pituitary → Adrenal glands), release of cortisol and adrenaline.

Personality Theories

• Trait Theories:

  • Big Five (OCEAN): Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.

• Psychoanalytic Theories:

  • Freud’s Structure: Id, Ego, Superego.

  • Defense Mechanisms: Repression, denial, projection, rationalization, displacement, sublimation.

• Humanistic Theories:

  • Carl Rogers: Self-concept, conditions of worth, unconditional positive regard.

  • Abraham Maslow: Hierarchy of needs leading to self-actualization.

• Behavioral Theories:

  • B.F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning: Behavior shaped by reinforcement and punishment.

• Cognitive Theories:

  • Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory: Learning through observation and imitation.

• Biological Theories:

  • Genetic Influences: Heritability of traits and behaviors.

  • Neurotransmitter Systems: Role of serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine in personality and behavior.

Cognitive Processes

• Memory Systems:

  • Sensory Memory: Brief retention of sensory information (milliseconds to seconds).

  • Short-Term Memory (STM): Limited capacity (~7±2 items), temporary storage (seconds to minutes).

  • Long-Term Memory (LTM): Large capacity, long-term storage (days to a lifetime).

    • Declarative (Explicit): Facts and events (semantic and episodic memory).

    • Procedural (Implicit): Skills and tasks (e.g., riding a bike).

• Encoding, Storage, Retrieval: Processes involved in memory formation and access.

• Working Memory: Active processing system, includes components like the central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer.

• Cognitive Biases:

  • Confirmation Bias: Tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms preexisting beliefs.

  • Anchoring Bias: Relying too heavily on the first piece of information encountered.

  • Availability Heuristic: Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory.

• Problem-Solving Strategies:

  • Algorithms: Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution.

  • Heuristics: Mental shortcuts that speed up problem-solving but may lead to errors.

  • Insight: Sudden realization of a solution.

  • Functional Fixedness: Inability to see alternative uses for an object.

Perception

• Gestalt Principles:

  • Proximity: Objects close together are perceived as a group.

  • Similarity: Similar objects are grouped together.

  • Continuity: Continuous lines are perceived as a whole.

  • Closure: Incomplete shapes are perceived as complete.

  • Common Fate: Objects moving in the same direction are perceived as a group.

  • Figure-Ground: Differentiating an object (figure) from its background (ground).

• Depth Perception:

  • Binocular Cues: Stereopsis, convergence.

  • Monocular Cues: Relative size, interposition, linear perspective, texture gradient.

• Visual Processing:

  • Pathways:

    • Parvocellular: Color and fine detail (What pathway).

    • Magnocellular: Motion and depth (Where pathway).

  • Receptive Fields: Area of the retina that responds to stimuli.

• Auditory Processing:

  • Structure of the Ear: Outer ear (pinna, ear canal), middle ear (tympanic membrane, ossicles), inner ear (cochlea, semicircular canals).

  • Frequency and Pitch: High frequency = high pitch, low frequency = low pitch.

  • Localization of Sound: Based on time and intensity differences between ears.

Social Psychology

• Attribution Theory: How individuals explain causes of behavior and events.

  • Internal Attribution: Behavior caused by personal factors (traits, abilities).

  • External Attribution: Behavior caused by situational factors.

  • Fundamental Attribution Error: Overemphasizing internal factors for others’ behavior.

• Social Influence:

  • Conformity: Adjusting behavior to align with group norms.

  • Compliance: Changing behavior in response to a request.

  • Obedience: Following orders from an authority figure.

• Group Dynamics:

  • Groupthink: Desire for harmony leads to poor decision-making.

  • Social Facilitation: Enhanced performance on well-learned tasks in the presence of others.

  • Social Loafing: Reduced effort when working in a group.

• Interpersonal Relationships:

  • Attraction: Factors influencing liking and forming relationships.

  • Love: Different types (passionate, companionate).

  • Conflict Resolution: Strategies for resolving disagreements.

Behavioral Science

Psychology Theories

• Learning Theories:

  • Classical Conditioning (Pavlov): Associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response.

  • Operant Conditioning (Skinner): Reinforcement and punishment to increase or decrease behavior.

    • Positive Reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus to increase behavior.

    • Negative Reinforcement: Removing an undesirable stimulus to increase behavior.

    • Positive Punishment: Adding an undesirable stimulus to decrease behavior.

    • Negative Punishment: Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease behavior.

• Emotion Theories:

  • James-Lange: Emotion is the perception of physiological changes.

  • Cannon-Bard: Emotion and physiological responses occur simultaneously.

  • Schachter-Singer: Emotion is based on physiological arousal and cognitive labeling.

• Developmental Theories:

  • Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development: Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, Formal Operational.

  • Freud’s Psychosexual Stages: Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital.

  • Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages: Trust vs. Mistrust, Autonomy vs. Shame, Initiative vs. Guilt, Industry vs. Inferiority, Identity vs. Role Confusion, Intimacy vs. Isolation, Generativity vs. Stagnation, Integrity vs. Despair.

  • Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development: Preconventional, Conventional, Postconventional.

• Humanistic Theories:

  • Carl Rogers: Self-concept, conditions of worth, unconditional positive regard.

  • Abraham Maslow: Hierarchy of needs leading to self-actualization.

• Biological Theories:

  • Behavioral Neuroscience: Study of how the brain and neurotransmitters influence behavior.

  • Genetic Influences: Heritability of traits and behaviors.

Cognitive Processes

• Memory Systems:

  • Sensory Memory: Brief retention of sensory information (milliseconds to seconds).

  • Short-Term Memory (STM): Limited capacity (~7±2 items), temporary storage (seconds to minutes).

  • Long-Term Memory (LTM): Large capacity, long-term storage (days to a lifetime).

    • Declarative (Explicit): Facts and events (semantic and episodic memory).

    • Procedural (Implicit): Skills and tasks (e.g., riding a bike).

• Encoding, Storage, Retrieval: Processes involved in memory formation and access.

• Working Memory: Active processing system, includes components like the central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer.

• Cognitive Biases:

  • Confirmation Bias: Tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms preexisting beliefs.

  • Anchoring Bias: Relying too heavily on the first piece of information encountered.

  • Availability Heuristic: Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory.

• Problem-Solving Strategies:

  • Algorithms: Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution.

  • Heuristics: Mental shortcuts that speed up problem-solving but may lead to errors.

  • Insight: Sudden realization of a solution.

  • Functional Fixedness: Inability to see alternative uses for an object.

Perception

• Gestalt Principles:

  • Proximity: Objects close together are perceived as a group.

  • Similarity: Similar objects are grouped together.

  • Continuity: Continuous lines are perceived as a whole.

  • Closure: Incomplete shapes are perceived as complete.

  • Common Fate: Objects moving in the same direction are perceived as a group.

  • Figure-Ground: Differentiating an object (figure) from its background (ground).

• Depth Perception:

  • Binocular Cues: Stereopsis, convergence.

  • Monocular Cues: Relative size, interposition, linear perspective, texture gradient.

• Visual Processing:

  • Pathways:

    • Parvocellular: Color and fine detail (What pathway).

    • Magnocellular: Motion and depth (Where pathway).

  • Receptive Fields: Area of the retina that responds to stimuli.

• Auditory Processing:

  • Structure of the Ear: Outer ear (pinna, ear canal), middle ear (tympanic membrane, ossicles), inner ear (cochlea, semicircular canals).

  • Frequency and Pitch: High frequency = high pitch, low frequency = low pitch.

  • Localization of Sound: Based on time and intensity differences between ears.

• Other Senses:

  • Olfaction: Smell, linked to limbic system.

  • Gustation: Taste, five basic tastes (sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami).

  • Somatosensation: Touch, pressure, pain, temperature, proprioception.

Social Psychology

• Attribution Theory: How individuals explain causes of behavior and events.

  • Internal Attribution: Behavior caused by personal factors (traits, abilities).

  • External Attribution: Behavior caused by situational factors.

  • Fundamental Attribution Error: Overemphasizing internal factors for others’ behavior.

• Social Influence:

  • Conformity: Adjusting behavior to align with group norms.

  • Compliance: Changing behavior in response to a request.

  • Obedience: Following orders from an authority figure.

• Group Dynamics:

  • Groupthink: Desire for harmony leads to poor decision-making.

  • Social Facilitation: Enhanced performance on well-learned tasks in the presence of others.

  • Social Loafing: Reduced effort when working in a group.

• Interpersonal Relationships:

  • Attraction: Factors influencing liking and forming relationships.

  • Love: Different types (passionate, companionate).

  • Conflict Resolution: Strategies for resolving disagreements.

Motivation & Emotion

• Theories of Motivation:

  • Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Physiological, Safety, Love/Belonging, Esteem, Self-Actualization.

  • Drive Reduction Theory: Biological needs create drives that motivate behavior to reduce the drive.

  • Incentive Theory: Behavior motivated by external rewards and incentives.

  • Self-Determination Theory: Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation.

• Emotion Theories:

  • James-Lange: Emotion is the perception of physiological changes.

  • Cannon-Bard: Emotion and physiological responses occur simultaneously.

  • Schachter-Singer: Emotion is based on physiological arousal and cognitive labeling.

• Stress and Coping:

  • Stress Appraisal:

    • Primary Appraisal: Is this event a threat?

    • Secondary Appraisal: Do I have the resources to cope?

  • Coping Mechanisms: Problem-focused (addressing the problem) and emotion-focused (managing emotions).

  • Yerkes-Dodson Law: Optimal performance at moderate arousal levels; performance decreases at low and high arousal.

  • HPA Axis: Hypothalamus → Pituitary → Adrenal glands (cortisol release).

Personality Theories

• Trait Theories:

  • Big Five (OCEAN): Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.

• Psychoanalytic Theories:

  • Freud’s Structure: Id, Ego, Superego.

  • Defense Mechanisms: Repression, denial, projection, rationalization, displacement, sublimation.

• Humanistic Theories:

  • Carl Rogers: Self-concept, conditions of worth, unconditional positive regard.

  • Abraham Maslow: Hierarchy of needs leading to self-actualization.

• Behavioral Theories:

  • B.F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning: Reinforcement and punishment shape behavior.

• Cognitive Theories:

  • Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory: Learning through observation and imitation.

• Biological Theories:

  • Genetic Influences: Heritability of traits and behaviors.

  • Neurotransmitter Systems: Role of serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine in personality and behavior.

Cognitive Psychology

• Memory Models:

  • Atkinson-Shiffrin Model: Sensory memory → Short-term memory → Long-term memory.

  • Working Memory (Baddeley): Central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer.

• Encoding, Storage, Retrieval: Processes involved in memory formation and access.

• Cognitive Biases:

  • Confirmation Bias: Tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms preexisting beliefs.

  • Anchoring Bias: Relying too heavily on the first piece of information encountered.

  • Availability Heuristic: Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory.

• Problem-Solving Strategies:

  • Algorithms: Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution.

  • Heuristics: Mental shortcuts that speed up problem-solving but may lead to errors.

  • Insight: Sudden realization of a solution.

  • Functional Fixedness: Inability to see alternative uses for an object.

Perception

• Gestalt Principles:

  • Proximity: Objects close together are perceived as a group.

  • Similarity: Similar objects are grouped together.

  • Continuity: Continuous lines are perceived as a whole.

  • Closure: Incomplete shapes are perceived as complete.

  • Common Fate: Objects moving in the same direction are perceived as a group.

  • Figure-Ground: Differentiating an object (figure) from its background (ground).

• Depth Perception:

  • Binocular Cues: Stereopsis, convergence.

  • Monocular Cues: Relative size, interposition, linear perspective, texture gradient.

• Visual Processing:

  • Pathways:

    • Parvocellular: Color and fine detail (What pathway).

    • Magnocellular: Motion and depth (Where pathway).

  • Receptive Fields: Area of the retina that responds to stimuli.

• Auditory Processing:

  • Structure of the Ear: Outer ear (pinna, ear canal), middle ear (tympanic membrane, ossicles), inner ear (cochlea, semicircular canals).

  • Frequency and Pitch: High frequency = high pitch, low frequency = low pitch.

  • Localization of Sound: Based on time and intensity differences between ears.

• Other Senses:

  • Olfaction: Smell, linked to limbic system.

  • Gustation: Taste, five basic tastes (sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami).

  • Somatosensation: Touch, pressure, pain, temperature, proprioception.

Social Psychology

• Attribution Theory: How individuals explain causes of behavior and events.

  • Internal Attribution: Behavior caused by personal factors (traits, abilities).

  • External Attribution: Behavior caused by situational factors.

  • Fundamental Attribution Error: Overemphasizing internal factors for others’ behavior.

• Social Influence:

  • Conformity: Adjusting behavior to align with group norms.

  • Compliance: Changing behavior in response to a request.

  • Obedience: Following orders from an authority figure.

• Group Dynamics:

  • Groupthink: Desire for harmony leads to poor decision-making.

  • Social Facilitation: Enhanced performance on well-learned tasks in the presence of others.

  • Social Loafing: Reduced effort when working in a group.

• Interpersonal Relationships:

  • Attraction: Factors influencing liking and forming relationships.

  • Love: Different types (passionate, companionate).

  • Conflict Resolution: Strategies for resolving disagreements.

Motivation & Emotion

• Theories of Motivation:

  • Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Physiological, Safety, Love/Belonging, Esteem, Self-Actualization.

  • Drive Reduction Theory: Biological needs create drives that motivate behavior to reduce the drive.

  • Incentive Theory: Behavior motivated by external rewards and incentives.

  • Self-Determination Theory: Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation.

• Emotion Theories:

  • James-Lange: Emotion is the perception of physiological changes.

  • Cannon-Bard: Emotion and physiological responses occur simultaneously.

  • Schachter-Singer: Emotion is based on physiological arousal and cognitive labeling.

• Stress and Coping:

  • Stress Appraisal:

    • Primary Appraisal: Is this event a threat?

    • Secondary Appraisal: Do I have the resources to cope?

  • Coping Mechanisms: Problem-focused (addressing the problem) and emotion-focused (managing emotions).

  • Yerkes-Dodson Law: Optimal performance at moderate arousal levels; performance decreases at low and high arousal.

  • HPA Axis: Hypothalamus → Pituitary → Adrenal glands (cortisol release).

Personality Theories

• Trait Theories:

  • Big Five (OCEAN): Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.

• Psychoanalytic Theories:

  • Freud’s Structure: Id, Ego, Superego.

  • Defense Mechanisms: Repression, denial, projection, rationalization, displacement, sublimation.

• Humanistic Theories:

  • Carl Rogers: Self-concept, conditions of worth, unconditional positive regard.

  • Abraham Maslow: Hierarchy of needs leading to self-actualization.

• Behavioral Theories:

  • B.F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning: Reinforcement and punishment shape behavior.

• Cognitive Theories:

  • Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory: Learning through observation and imitation.

• Biological Theories:

  • Genetic Influences: Heritability of traits and behaviors.

  • Neurotransmitter Systems: Role of serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine in personality and behavior.

Developmental Psychology

• Stages of Development:

  • Infancy: Trust vs. Mistrust, Sensorimotor Stage.

  • Childhood: Autonomy vs. Shame, Initiative vs. Guilt, Concrete Operational Stage.

  • Adolescence: Identity vs. Role Confusion, Formal Operational Stage.

  • Adulthood: Intimacy vs. Isolation, Generativity vs. Stagnation, Integrity vs. Despair.

• Attachment Theory:

  • Secure Attachment: Comfortable with intimacy and independence.

  • Insecure Attachment: Anxious or avoidant behaviors.

• Moral Development:

  • Kohlberg’s Stages:

    1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation

    2. Self-Interest Orientation

    3. Interpersonal Accord and Conformity

    4. Authority and Social Order Maintaining Orientation

    5. Social Contract Orientation

    6. Universal Ethical Principles Orientation.

Motivation & Emotion

• Theories of Motivation:

  • Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Physiological, Safety, Love/Belonging, Esteem, Self-Actualization.

  • Drive Reduction Theory: Biological needs create drives that motivate behavior to reduce the drive.

  • Incentive Theory: Behavior motivated by external rewards and incentives.

  • Self-Determination Theory: Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation.

• Emotion Theories:

  • James-Lange: Emotion is the perception of physiological changes.

  • Cannon-Bard: Emotion and physiological responses occur simultaneously.

  • Schachter-Singer: Emotion is based on physiological arousal and cognitive labeling.

• Stress and Coping:

  • Stress Appraisal:

    • Primary Appraisal: Is this event a threat?

    • Secondary Appraisal: Do I have the resources to cope?

  • Coping Mechanisms: Problem-focused (addressing the problem) and emotion-focused (managing emotions).

  • Yerkes-Dodson Law: Optimal performance at moderate arousal levels; performance decreases at low and high arousal.

  • HPA Axis: Hypothalamus → Pituitary → Adrenal glands (cortisol release).

Cognitive Biases & Heuristics

• Confirmation Bias: Tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms preexisting beliefs.

• Anchoring Bias: Relying too heavily on the first piece of information encountered.

• Availability Heuristic: Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory.

• Representativeness Heuristic: Judging the probability of an event based on how much it resembles existing stereotypes.

• Overconfidence Bias: Excessive confidence in one's own answers or judgments.

Social Cognition

• Schemas: Mental structures that organize knowledge and guide information processing.

• Stereotypes: Overgeneralized beliefs about a group.

• Prejudice: Negative attitudes towards a group.

• Discrimination: Unfair treatment based on group membership.

• Self-Serving Bias: Attributing successes to internal factors and failures to external factors.

• Fundamental Attribution Error: Overemphasizing personal traits and underemphasizing situational factors in explaining others' behavior.

Psychological Disorders & Treatments

• Classification Systems:

  • DSM-5: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.

  • ICD-10: International Classification of Diseases.

• Types of Disorders:

  • Anxiety Disorders: Generalized Anxiety Disorder, Panic Disorder, Phobias.

  • Mood Disorders: Depression, Bipolar Disorder.

  • Schizophrenia Spectrum: Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective Disorder.

  • Personality Disorders: Borderline, Antisocial, Narcissistic.

  • Neurodevelopmental Disorders: Autism Spectrum Disorder, ADHD.

• Treatment Approaches:

  • Psychotherapy: Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), Psychodynamic Therapy, Humanistic Therapy.

  • Pharmacotherapy: Use of medications like antidepressants, antipsychotics, anxiolytics.

  • Biological Treatments: Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT), Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS).

Motivation & Emotion

• Basic Emotions: Happiness, Sadness, Fear, Anger, Surprise, Disgust.

• Appraisal Theories: Emotion arises from the individual's appraisal of a situation.

• Facial Feedback Hypothesis: Facial expressions can influence emotional experiences.

• Emotion Regulation: Strategies to influence which emotions one has, when one has them, and how one experiences and expresses them.

Developmental Psychology

• Attachment Styles:

  • Secure: Comfortable with intimacy and independence.

  • Anxious: Preoccupied with relationships, fear of abandonment.

  • Avoidant: Dismissive of relationships, desire for independence.

  • Disorganized: Inconsistent behavior, lack of clear attachment strategy.

• Critical Periods: Times during development when certain experiences must occur for normal development.

• Continuity vs. Discontinuity: Whether development is gradual and cumulative or occurs in distinct stages.

• Nature vs. Nurture: Debate over the relative contributions of genetics and environment to development.

Lab Techniques

Chromatography

• Thin-Layer Chromatography (TLC)

  • Normal Phase: Polar stationary phase (e.g., silica gel), non-polar mobile phase (e.g., hexanes).

  • Reverse Phase: Non-polar stationary phase (e.g., C18), polar mobile phase (e.g., water/methanol).

  • Retention Factor ($R_f$$R_f$): $R_f=\frac{\text{Distance Spot Moved}}{\text{Distance Solvent Front Moved}}$$R_f = \frac{\text{Distance Spot Moved}}{\text{Distance Solvent Front Moved}}$

    • Interpretation: Higher $R_f$$R_f$ = less polar compound in normal phase.

• High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)

  • Normal Phase vs. Reverse Phase: Similar to TLC but with higher resolution and faster separation.

  • Applications: Purification and analysis of compounds.

• Gas Chromatography (GC)

  • Components: Mobile phase = inert gas, Stationary phase = liquid or solid.

  • Retention Time: Lower boiling point compounds elute first.

  • Detector Types: Flame Ionization Detector (FID), Mass Spectrometer (MS).

• Size Exclusion Chromatography (SEC):

  • Principle: Separation based on molecular size. Larger molecules elute first.

• Ion Exchange Chromatography:

  • Cation Exchange: Negatively charged beads bind cations.

  • Anion Exchange: Positively charged beads bind anions.

Distillation

• Simple Distillation:

  • Use When: Components have boiling points differing by at least 25°C and boiling points < 150°C.

• Fractional Distillation:

  • Use When: Components have boiling points differing by less than 25°C.

• Vacuum Distillation:

  • Use When: Compounds have high boiling points (>150°C) to prevent decomposition.

• Distillation Apparatus:

  • Components: Flask, condenser, receiver, thermometer.

  • Purpose: Separation based on differences in boiling points.

Spectroscopy

• Infrared (IR) Spectroscopy

  • Regions:

    • Functional Group Region: 1500-4000 cm⁻¹

      • O–H: ~3300 cm⁻¹ (broad)

      • N–H: ~3300 cm⁻¹ (sharp)

      • C=O: ~1700-1750 cm⁻¹ (sharp)

    • Fingerprint Region: 500-1500 cm⁻¹

  • Interpretation: Identify functional groups based on absorption peaks.

• Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy

  • Chemical Shift (ppm):

    • 0–3 ppm: Alkyl protons.

    • 4–7 ppm: Protons on carbons adjacent to electronegative atoms.

    • 7–9 ppm: Aromatic protons.

    • 9–12 ppm: Aldehyde protons.

    • 10–12 ppm: Carboxylic acid protons.

  • Splitting Patterns:

    • n+1 Rule: Number of neighboring protons + 1 = number of splits.

• Ultraviolet-Visible (UV-Vis) Spectroscopy

  • Principle: Absorption of UV or visible light causes electronic transitions.

  • Applications: Determine conjugation, concentration of solutions (Beer-Lambert Law).

Electrophoresis & Blots

• Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (PAGE)

  • SDS-PAGE: Denatures proteins, separates based on molecular weight.

  • Native PAGE: Non-denaturing, separates based on size, charge, and shape.

• Blotting Techniques:

  • Southern Blot: DNA detection.

  • Northern Blot: RNA detection.

  • Western Blot: Protein detection.

  • Dot Blot: Direct application without gel separation.

• Western Blot Steps:

  1. Gel Electrophoresis: Separate proteins by size.

  2. Transfer: Move proteins to a membrane.

  3. Blocking: Prevent non-specific binding.

  4. Antibody Incubation: Primary and secondary antibodies bind to target protein.

  5. Detection: Visualize bands using chemiluminescence or colorimetric methods.

Extractions

• Liquid-Liquid Extraction:

  • Principle: Partitioning compounds between two immiscible liquids based on solubility.

  • Acid-Base Extraction:

    • Carboxylic Acids: Convert to carboxylate anion with base, move to aqueous layer.

    • Amines: Convert to ammonium salts with acid, move to aqueous layer.

• Solid-Phase Extraction (SPE):

  • Principle: Separation based on adsorption to a solid matrix.

  • Applications: Purification of samples before analysis.

Enzyme Assays

• Michaelis-Menten Kinetics:

  • Equation: $V=\frac{V_{max}[S]}{K_m+[S]}$$V = \frac{V_{\max} [S]}{K_m + [S]}$

  • Parameters:

    • $V_{max}$$V_{\max}$: Maximum reaction rate.

    • $K_m$$K_m$: Substrate concentration at half $V_{max}$$V_{\max}$.

• Inhibition Types:

  • Competitive: Increases $K_m$$K_m$, no change in $V_{max}$$V_{\max}$.

  • Noncompetitive: Decreases $V_{max}$$V_{\max}$, no change in $K_m$$K_m$.

  • Uncompetitive: Decreases both $K_m$$K_m$ and $V_{max}$$V_{\max}$.

Additional Techniques

• Mass Spectrometry (MS):

  • Principle: Ionizes chemical species and sorts the ions based on their mass-to-charge ratio.

  • Applications: Determine molecular weight, structural information, sequence of peptides.

• Chromatography Coupled with Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS, LC-MS):

  • Applications: Identify and quantify compounds in complex mixtures.

• Electrochemical Methods:

  • Coulomb's Law: $F=k\frac{q_1{q}_2}{r^2}$$F = k \frac{q_1 q_2}{r^2}$

  • Electric Potential: $V=\frac{kQ}{r}$$V = \frac{kQ}{r}$

  • Electric Field: $E=\frac{F}{q}=\frac{kQ}{r^2}$$E = \frac{F}{q} = \frac{kQ}{r^2}$